Cellular interfacial and surface tensions determined from aggregate compression tests using a finite element model

This pioneering study quantified cellular interfacial and surface tensions by compressing spherical embryonic tissue aggregates between parallel plates and interpreting the resulting force–time data using a 3D finite element model. The work introduced quantitative relationships that allowed estimation of cytoplasmic viscosity, cell–cell interfacial tension, and cell–medium surface tension. Tests on chick embryonic mesencephalon, neural retina, liver, and heart tissues demonstrated that surface and cytoplasmic tensions vary by cell type and are key to understanding cell rearrangement, morphogenesis, and self-organization.